International Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics

J.van GIGCH distinguishes the following schools of thought in this discipline (1993, p.46):

"1. Sciences of the artificial

2. Systems Sciences or Sciences of Complexity.

3. Decision Sciences.

4. Cognitive Sciences.

5. Computation Sciences.

6. Communication Sciences.

7. Control Sciences (Cybernetics).

8. Computer Sciences and Artificial Intelligence.

9. Complex Systems Engineering Sciences.

10. Complex Social Organization Sciences and Management Decision Sciences.

11. Normative Decision Theories.

12. Management Theories.

13. Operations Research and Management Science.

14. Social Communication and Behavior Theory."

Cybernetics does not only contribute to control sciences, but also to social communication and psychology, as shown by von FOERSTER's 2nd order cybernetics.

In his paper, van GIGCH contributes an interesting table (by himself and J.L.LE MOIGNE) about "Purposes and metaphors of the disciplines which contribute to the design of an information system" (p.47).

A very different viewpoint is G. PATON's one. In a 1997 paper he observed that "Information system" as an expression is quite ambiguous, as "words in any language are overloaded with several distinct meanings". The problem started with Shannon's use of the word "information" in his foundational paper on "mathematical communication theory"(1948), even if he cannot be made responsible for the generalized error of later authors to refer themselves to SHANNON's theory of "information".

PATON states clearly that information is "a particular parcel of knowledge, acquired at a particular moment in time"(p. 69), irrespective of course to the fact that the "informed" person communicates that information to another person.

This is different from MacKAY's wording about "logon" (i.e. coded meaning in a linguistic and semantic sense) and "metron" (i.e. coding of such logon in a communication code, electronic, or whatever). However, it helps to combine MacKay's approach to Paton's one.

As to "information systems"another ambiguity emerges. PATON observes: "if you think of information as existing out there in the world"(in a computer for ex.)…"you are working with information as a resource, just like finance. All the dangers of the take-over by accountants now apply to take-over by I.S. managers"(Ibid, p. 70)

And of course, IS managers become controllers aiming at making a profit by installing suitable valves within the communication channels (and eventually also installing censure or manipulation)

Accordingly, PATON considers that "information systems", before becoming a "resource", are "intellectual constructs"(p. 71). As such, they are open systems, very different of the boxed products that become protected commercial items, as for example patents, software packages or any other finished product.